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KAIST Develops a Beetle-Inspired Soft Robot That Operates with Artificial Muscles and Sensory Feedback
Researchers have developed a technology that lets a user move a small robot by bending and straightening a finger. The user can also pick up and move objects while checking the images and contact information that the robot sends back. The system combines artificial muscles, a camera, and tactile sensors in a small soft robot modeled on a beetle. It is expected to be used in remote tasks, such as inspecting narrow spaces that are difficult for people to reach and retrieving small objects.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on October 13 that a research team led by Professor Sang Ouk Kim from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering has developed a small soft robot called “BeetleBot.” The team worked with the research groups of Professor Wei Gao at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and Professor Hirotaka Sato at NTU.
When people grasp an object, they use their eyes to find where it is and the sensation in their fingertips to check the contact. A robot that adjusts its work to its surroundings also needs its movement and sensing functions to be connected. Soft robots are built from soft, deformable materials. In these robots, however, actuation, sensing, and control are often built as separate parts or depend on complex devices. This has made it difficult to integrate several functions into a small robot.
The researchers designed the robot to walk and grip objects using artificial muscles that contract in a similar way to biological muscles. They linked these muscles with a camera, a pressure sensor, and a stretchable sensor patch worn on the finger. With this setup, the user can control the robot while checking its surroundings and its contact with objects.
The team first analyzed how the leg muscles of a beetle relate to the movement of its joints. They used the results to decide where to place BeetleBot’s artificial muscles and how to design its legs. The artificial muscles were made by 3D printing a liquid crystal elastomer (LCE), a polymer that contracts when heated. They were combined with an actuation module that produces heat from electricity. The muscles in each part of the robot can be operated independently, and the order in which they operate can be adjusted. This allows the robot to walk forward and turn left or right.
The researchers also built a soft gripper based on the mandibles that beetles use to hold their prey. The gripper combines artificial muscles with a capacitive pressure sensor, so it can grip an object and detect the contact. When the artificial muscles contract, the gripper closes around the object. The pressure sensor then detects the pressure applied during contact. When the object presses on the sensor, the distance between its internal electrodes changes, and so does its capacitance. The sensor uses this change to determine the contact state.
To control the robot, the team used a stretchable sensor patch whose electrical resistance changes as the finger moves. When the finger bends and stretches the patch, the conductive paths formed by carbon nanotubes (CNTs) inside it change, which changes the resistance signal. The researchers sorted these signals into four commands: move forward, turn left, turn right, and grip an object. The commands are sent to BeetleBot over Bluetooth Low Energy, and the robot carries out the matching action.
The user views the robot’s surroundings through a small onboard camera and checks contact with objects using data from the pressure sensor in the gripper. Based on this information, the user decides on the next action and sends a command with a finger movement. In this way, the system provides bidirectional feedback. Commands go from the user to the robot, and the information the robot detects goes back to the user.
Using this control method, the researchers showed that BeetleBot could avoid obstacles, approach a target object, and then grip and carry it. By connecting artificial muscle-based walking and gripping, visual and tactile sensing, and user control in a single system, the study shows that small soft robots can carry out practical tasks.
The results are expected to support the development of soft robots for remote tasks, such as checking conditions and retrieving small objects in spaces that are hard for people to access. Before the robot can be used more widely, for example in environmental exploration or industrial equipment inspection, the actuation speed, energy efficiency, and power supply of the artificial muscles will need to be improved. Its performance will also need to be tested in real working environments.
“This study expands the potential uses of soft robots by connecting the movement of artificial muscles, sensing, and user control in a single system,” said Professor Sang Ouk Kim. He added that he expects the joint research with Caltech and other partners to contribute to soft robots that can work in spaces that are difficult for people to access.
“A key feature of this work is the bidirectional feedback, which links the information detected by the robot to the user’s next action,” said Professor Inho Kim of Sungkyunkwan University, the first author. He added that he plans to increase the actuation speed and energy efficiency of the artificial muscles and improve control methods that use sensory information, so that the robot can be developed into a soft robot that works in a variety of environments.
Professor Inho Kim earned his Ph.D. from the KAIST Department of Materials Science and Engineering. He is now an assistant professor in the Department of Chemistry at Sungkyunkwan University, and he took part in the study as first author while working as a postdoctoral researcher at Caltech. Professor Sang Ouk Kim of KAIST and Professor Wei Gao of Caltech are co-corresponding authors. The results were published in Science Advances on August 19, 2026.
Paper title: BeetleBot: An integrated bioinspired soft robot for multimodal sensing and adaptive interaction,
DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aeg8849
This research was supported by the Heritage Medical Research Institute, the Meta Caltech Research Award, the National Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2024-00411904, RS-2025-00521316, RS-2025-25442577), and the Singapore Ministry of Education (RG140/20, RG82/24).
2026.10.13 View 104 -
KAIST Reveals How Information Is Written in Ferroelectric Memory at the Nanoscale
What happens at the nanoscale when information is written to memory? Researchers at KAIST have shown how tiny regions with a new polarization direction form while previously formed regions continue to expand in a promising ferroelectric material. By linking these nanoscale changes to electrical measurements, the team developed a model that captures both processes, offering a basis for designing faster and more stable memory.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on October 8 that a team led by Professor Seungbum Hong from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering had identified how information is recorded in hafnium zirconium oxide (HZO), a promising material for next-generation memory. The study was conducted in collaboration with Professor Byung Jin Cho’s team at KAIST’s School of Electrical Engineering and researchers at NaMLab/TU Dresden in Germany.
The research team focused on ferroelectrics. Ferroelectric materials can retain their electrical polarization after an applied voltage is removed. Reversing this orientation allows the material to store information as 0s and 1s. The electrical state in which positive and negative charges inside a material are aligned in a particular direction is called polarization.
HZO combines hafnium oxide, a material widely used in semiconductor manufacturing, with zirconium oxide. Its compatibility with existing semiconductor manufacturing processes makes it attractive for nonvolatile memory, which retains data without power.
When a voltage is applied to a ferroelectric, tiny regions called domains, each with a uniform polarization direction, begin to change. As new domains form and existing domains expand into the surrounding area, the overall polarization direction reverses and information is recorded.
Researchers have traditionally described this switching behavior using models that emphasize either nucleation, the formation of new domains, or growth, the expansion of existing domains.
In hafnia-based thin films such as HZO, however, switching occurs across many nanometer-sized crystal grains. Nucleation and growth interact with grain boundaries and other structural features, making it difficult for models that emphasize either process alone to fully capture the observed behavior.
Using high-resolution piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM), the researchers directly observed how nanometer-scale domains (one nanometer is one billionth of a meter) change as the applied voltage increases. They then compared these observations with the electrical switching behavior of the full devices.
The combined results showed that new domains continued to form while existing domains expanded. In other words, information is recorded through two simultaneous processes: new changes begin, and changes already under way spread.
To describe this behavior, the team introduced a simultaneous nucleation and growth (SNG) model. The model accounts for both the continuing formation of new domains and the cumulative expansion of those already present, bringing the two processes together in a single framework.
The team also linked the nanoscale changes seen under the microscope directly to the electrical behavior of real memory devices. This makes it possible to explain not only how quickly the memory switches, but also where information writing begins and how it spreads.
The findings can also be used to improve the performance of next-generation memory. Once researchers understand how domains form and spread, they can adjust a material's structure or manufacturing process so that information is written more quickly and uniformly.
This understanding could help researchers improve memory performance by adjusting material structures and fabrication conditions to make switching faster and more uniform. The findings could also guide the development of more reliable, energy-efficient nonvolatile memory and neuromorphic devices for AI. Neuromorphic devices mimic aspects of the brain’s information processing and storage, offering potential applications in low-power AI hardware.
“When information is written in a ferroelectric material, which retains its electrical state even without power, small changes begin at multiple sites while those already under way spread into the surrounding regions,” said Professor Hong. “This study reveals how these two processes work together to write information, providing a new basis for designing faster and more reliable next-generation memory.”
Batzorig Buyantogtokh, a postdoctoral researcher in KAIST’s Department of Materials Science and Engineering, is the study’s first author. The paper was published in Nano Letters on June 15, 2026, and was selected for a journal cover.
Paper: “Nucleation-to-Propagation Switching Modes in Ferroelectric Hf₀.₅Zr₀.₅O₂ Capacitors”
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.6c01580
This research was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), with funding from the Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT), under grant numbers RS-2026-25487626, RS-2026-25468150, and RS-2023-00272257.
2026.10.08 View 534 -
KAIST, “BTS” Heads to Space… Five NEONSAT Microsatellites to Launch on Nuri
To monitor areas affected by wildfires or floods using satellites, it is necessary to be able to image those locations again when needed. With a single satellite, it takes time to revisit the same area, but operating multiple satellites together can increase observation opportunities. Five NEONSAT microsatellites, part of a constellation development project led by KAIST, are heading into space aboard the Nuri launch vehicle.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on October 6 that NEONSAT satellites Nos. 2 through 6, whose development project is led by the Satellite Technology Research Center of the KAIST Space Institute, will be launched as the primary payload of the fifth Nuri launch scheduled for October 7 from the Naro Space Center in Goheung, South Jeolla Province. The launch is scheduled to take place between 12:23 p.m. and 1:23 p.m., with the exact time to be determined on the day of launch.
President Choongsik Bae said, “This launch marks an important milestone in expanding KAIST’s long-accumulated capabilities in small satellite development into a satellite constellation system in which multiple satellites are manufactured and operated together,” adding, “We hope our research and technologies will be reliably demonstrated in space and lead to tangible value that contributes to people’s lives in areas such as disaster response and public safety.”
NEONSAT is an Earth observation satellite weighing less than 100 kg per unit. It is designed to capture high-resolution imagery at approximately 1-meter resolution in panchromatic mode and 4-meter resolution in color. If the planned constellation of 10 mass-produced satellites is completed by 2027, the system will be able to image the Korean Peninsula more than three times a day and revisit the same location within 24 hours in the event of emergencies such as disasters.
This project is Korea’s first development program for a practical, mass-produced satellite constellation. The KAIST Satellite Technology Research Center oversees the entire project, including satellite system development, and has established analytical methods and management procedures required to jointly develop, verify, and operate multiple satellites. The Korea Aerospace Research Institute is responsible for developing the ground system for constellation operations as well as satellite image calibration, validation, and utilization systems, while Satrec Initiative Co., Ltd. participated in the development of the satellite bus and high-resolution optical camera. The project is being carried out jointly by Korean industry, academia, and research institutions with support from the Korea AeroSpace Administration.
KAIST has assigned the common acronym “BTS” to each launch stage to reflect the progression of the satellite constellation development. The prototype satellite was designated “Beginning of The Swarm,” the validation satellite “Bridging of The Swarm,” the first batch of mass-produced satellites being launched this time “Beholding of The Swarm,” and the second batch of mass-produced satellites scheduled for launch in 2027 “Beyond The Swarm.” These names represent the progression from the prototype and validation stages to full-scale constellation launches and operations.
Jae-Hung Han, Director of the KAIST Space Institute, said, “The key to this project is not simply building a single satellite, but establishing a system in which multiple satellites are manufactured and verified to the same standards and operated together in orbit,” adding, “After launch, we will carefully verify the condition of the satellites and the quality of their imagery to ensure that constellation observations proceed as planned.”
In addition to the five NEONSAT satellites, the upcoming Nuri launch will carry 10 CubeSats as secondary payloads. Among them, another KAIST satellite, GBSAT, will investigate the low-Earth-orbit space environment.
2026.10.06 View 633 -
KAIST Develops Vector Database Technology for Reliable Retrieval of Up-to-Date Information
When new information is continually added and old information is removed, an AI system may fail to find the correct material even when that material exists. KAIST researchers have developed a vector database technology that preserves the search paths leading to the needed information as data changes. This allows AI to find up-to-date information more accurately and quickly.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on October 5 that a research team led by Professor Min-Soo Kim from the School of Computing has developed CONDA (Connectivity-Aware Dynamic Index). CONDA is a dynamic vector database indexing technology that maintains high search accuracy even as data is continuously added and deleted.
Generative AI models do not inherently have access to information that emerges after training. Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has been widely adopted to address this limitation. RAG searches sources such as recent news or internal company documents and uses the results in its answers.
For RAG to work properly, the system needs a search technology that can quickly and accurately find the information relevant to a question among vast amounts of data. Many AI services today convert the meaning of documents or images into vectors, which are numerical representations that computers can process. They then link pieces of information with similar meanings and follow these links to find the material they need.
The challenge is that data in real companies and on the internet changes constantly. New documents, news, and product information keep arriving, while older information is modified or deleted. As these changes repeat, the links built between data points can gradually break, a problem the researchers call "connectivity collapse." The needed information is still in the database, but the AI can no longer reach it, and search accuracy drops. In other words, the information itself has not been lost. The search path that leads to it has been broken.
CONDA considers both distances between data points and whether the search paths needed to reach the information remain connected. When new data is added or existing data is deleted, CONDA preserves the links that are important for search. This prevents specific pieces of information from becoming isolated in the search graph.
In experiments where data was constantly added and deleted, CONDA improved search accuracy (recall) by up to 24.5% compared with state-of-the-art methods. It also increased data update throughput by up to 1.90 times.
The team also ran searches and data updates at the same time for six hours on a large-scale dataset containing 100 million vectors. Throughout the test, CONDA recorded the lowest search latency and the highest search accuracy among the compared methods. This result suggests that the technology can be applied to large-scale AI services.
The technology can be used in knowledge search systems where information such as internal company regulations and work documents changes frequently. It can also be used in a range of AI services where data changes continuously, including news search, product search, and recommendation systems. In particular, it is expected to serve as a foundational technology for RAG, in which generative AI searches external information and uses it in its answers. CONDA allows this up-to-date information to be retrieved reliably over extended periods.
The research results are also being applied to a commercial product. CONDA is being integrated into AkasicDB, the database product of GraphAI, an AI data infrastructure company founded by Professor Kim. It is scheduled for commercial release in the fourth quarter of this year.
"The key value of retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) is that it allows large language models (LLMs) to find and use the latest information they were not trained on at the moment it is needed," said Professor Kim. He added that the study is significant because it presents a data infrastructure that lets AI use up-to-date knowledge accurately over long periods, even in real-world environments where data changes constantly.
Darae Lee, who completed a master's degree at the KAIST School of Computing, is the first author of the study, and Professor Kim is the corresponding author. The findings were presented on September 2 at VLDB 2026 (the International Conference on Very Large Data Bases), a leading international conference in the database field.
Paper title: CONDA: A Connectivity-Aware Dynamic Index for Approximate Nearest Neighbor Search over Evolving Data
DOI: 10.14778/3836663.3836694
This research was supported by the Mid-Career Researcher Program of the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) and the SW Star Lab program of the Institute of Information & Communications Technology Planning & Evaluation (IITP), both funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT).
2026.10.06 View 642 -
KAIST Identifies a “Hidden Amplification Switch” in Lymphangiogenic Signaling
Lymphatic vessels act as the body’s “drainage system,” collecting excess fluid from tissues. When lymphatic drainage is impaired because lymphatic vessels are underdeveloped, damaged, or dysfunctional, lymphedema can develop, causing swelling, particularly in the arms and legs. Conversely, excessive lymphatic vessel growth around tumors can facilitate cancer metastasis by providing routes for tumor cells to spread. Korean researchers have discovered that VEGF-C brings two VEGFR-3 receptors together, and the resulting VEGF-C–VEGFR-3 complexes further cluster to amplify signaling. Targeting this clustering process may provide a new strategy for either enhancing or suppressing lymphangiogenic signaling, depending on the disease context.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on October 2 that a joint research team led by Professor Ho Min Kim from the Department of Biological Sciences at KAIST and Dr. Sangkyu Lee of the Institute for Basic Science (IBS; President Suk Bok Chang) determined the three-dimensional structure of the VEGF-C–VEGFR-3 complex and identified how higher-order clustering of these complexes amplifies signaling.
When VEGF-C binds to VEGFR-3 on the cell surface, the receptor is activated and signals that regulate the formation and function of lymphatic vessels are transmitted into the cell. Until now, VEGF-C-mediated dimerization of two VEGFR-3 receptors has been considered a key step in receptor activation. However, how the signal becomes further amplified after this step has not been fully understood.
The research team examined the structure of VEGF-C bound to VEGFR-3 using cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM), which enables detailed visualization of the three-dimensional structures of proteins. They found that VEGF-C-induced complexes containing two VEGFR-3 receptors further assembled side by side into higher-order clusters. This revealed a new structural mode by which VEGF-C–VEGFR-3 complexes can organize laterally along the cell membrane.Simply put, it is like two people first forming a team to begin a task, and then multiple teams gathering together to increase their collective strength. The researchers also tested whether this clustering actually amplifies signaling. By altering the regions where the complexes contact one another and by using light to control receptor clustering, they confirmed that the gathering of multiple complexes plays an important role in signal amplification.
This study identifies a new point at which lymphangiogenic signaling could potentially be regulated. In the future, researchers may explore ways to enhance signaling when lymphatic vessel formation is insufficient and to suppress signaling when excessive lymphatic vessels form around tumors. However, this study did not demonstrate therapeutic effects for lymphedema or the inhibition of cancer metastasis, and further research will be required before the findings can be applied to actual treatments.
Professor Ho Min Kim said, “This study reveals how two VEGFR-3 receptors first form a ligand-induced pair, after which multiple such complexes cluster together to further amplify the signal for lymphangiogenesis ,” adding, “By identifying this previously unseen ‘hidden amplification switch’ in lymphangiogenic signaling, we expect this work to provide an important foundation for developing new therapeutic strategies for related diseases such as lymphedema and cancer metastasis.”
Dr. Ryeongeun Cho of the KAIST InnoCORE AI-CRED Innovative Drug Research Group and Dr. Jinsook Ahn of the KAIST Department of Biological Sciences participated in the study as co-first authors. Professor Ho Min Kim of KAIST and Dr. Sangkyu Lee of IBS led the research as co-corresponding authors. The findings were published online on September 9 in the international journal Advanced Science.
Paper title: Structural Basis of Lymphangiogenic Receptor VEGFR-3 Activation Mediated by Distinctive Clustering of the Ligand–Receptor Complex, DOI: 10.1002/advs.77728
Related videos:
Video showing cryo-EM sample preparation by rapidly freezing protein samples at cryogenic temperatures: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1OGPpkzmZMaWU3oxfswpbcEtt3NzX3n4q/view?usp=drive_link
Video showing the grid screening process for cryo-EM image collection: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Bg6zEPeS9NZDO8zFaj59Fe7L_f8tBWwQ/view?usp=drive_link
Video showing the loading of frozen protein samples into the cryo-EM instrument: https://drive.google.com/file/d/19c1INwek38B72KKPPXmPVTggYAoO4aY3/view?usp=drive_link
Titan Krios cryo-EM instrument installed at KAIST KARA: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1c5Wmj44_9taYIW4N_mumg6tT21iOUYNQ/view?usp=drive_link
Video of the molecular structure of the VEGF-C and VEGFR-3 complex identified in this study: https://drive.google.com/file/d/198bcFoTb_pv__Ep-MHwcI47G4gv5yisx/view?usp=drive_link
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2024-00397681, RS-2025-00523615 to H.M.K. and RS-2025-00523575 to J.A.), the InnoCORE program of the Ministry of Science and ICT (N10250153 to H.M.K. and R.C.), the NEXUS & CELINE consortium, the KAIST Convergence Research Institute Operation Program, and the Institute for Basic Science (IBS-R001-Y4 to S.L.), among others.
2026.10.02 View 917 -
KAIST Reveals How the Light-Responsive Molecular Switch Azobenzene Changes Shape
Azobenzene is one of the best-known molecules that can be switched between two forms by light. However, the question of how the molecule moves in the first few picoseconds (trillionths of a second) after it absorbs light has remained unresolved for nearly 50 years. A Korean research team has now shown that, during the initial stage of the reaction, the molecule changes shape through a coordinated motion of the two nitrogen atoms at its center, while its two benzene rings stay nearly in place. The finding is expected to provide useful information for designing materials and molecular-scale machines that operate with light.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on October 1 that a research team led by Hyotcherl Ihee, Professor in the Department of Chemistry at KAIST and Director of the Center for Advanced Reaction Dynamics (CARD) at the Institute for Basic Science (IBS, President Sukbok Chang), has identified the process by which the light-responsive molecule azobenzene changes its structure.
Azobenzene consists of two benzene rings connected by a central linkage of two nitrogen atoms. When it absorbs light, the molecule can change from a form in which the two rings are on opposite sides of the linkage (the trans form) to a form in which they are on the same side (the cis form). The molecule keeps the same atoms, and only their positions change. Researchers have used this property to control the activity of drugs with light and to develop light-responsive materials and molecular machines.
However, the structures of the molecule before and after the change do not show how it moves between the two forms. Researchers have proposed different explanations. Some suggested that the two rings rotate significantly, some that the central linkage straightens, and others that several parts of the molecule twist together. The question has been difficult to resolve because the structures that form during the reaction exist for too short a time to be observed directly.
The research team used the X-ray free-electron laser at the Pohang Accelerator Laboratory (PAL-XFEL) to observe these structures. The researchers first started the reaction by irradiating azobenzene dissolved in methanol with a laser. They then measured how its structure changed over time using ultrafast X-ray pulses.
The main challenge was to detect the weak signal from azobenzene, which was obscured by the much stronger signal from the surrounding solvent. The team separated the two signals using an analysis method that mathematically removes the contribution of the solvent. Based on the measurements taken at each point in time, the researchers then reconstructed the motion of the molecule as a movie.
The results showed that azobenzene does not change shape by rotating its two large benzene rings significantly at the same time. Instead, the reaction begins with torsion about the carbon–nitrogen bonds. During this initial motion, the central nitrogen linkage moves in a coordinated motion, similar to the way the two pedals of a bicycle move, and this changes the overall shape of the molecule.
This finding helps explain why the reaction rate does not change significantly even when the surrounding liquid becomes more viscous. If the molecule had to rotate its two large rings, it would need to displace a large volume of the surrounding liquid. Because the motion occurs mainly in the central part of the molecule, much less liquid needs to be displaced.
"This study shows the pathway by which azobenzene changes its shape after it absorbs light," said Professor Hyotcherl Ihee. He added that the team expects the work to help researchers understand how a wide range of light-responsive molecules work, because it improves methods for observing the motion of organic molecules that react rapidly.
The study did not directly improve the performance of drugs or materials that use azobenzene. Its significance is that it identifies the pathway the molecule actually follows as it moves. This provides basic data that researchers can refer to when they design light-responsive materials and molecular machines.
Dr. Jungmin Kim and Dr. Hosung Ki, who both received their degrees from KAIST and are now at IBS, are co-first authors of the study. The findings were published online in the international journal Nature on September 30 (UK time).
Paper title: X-ray liquidography decodes complex motions in azobenzene isomerization,
DOI: 10.1038/s41586-026-11068-4
This research was supported by the Institute for Basic Science (IBS) Research Center Program of the Ministry of Science and ICT.
2026.10.02 View 772 -
KAIST Develops a Venus Flytrap-Inspired 'Robot Hand' Material That Detects What Comes Near and Grasps It Under UV Light
A Venus flytrap closes its leaves to trap prey when it senses a stimulus. Taking inspiration from this plant, KAIST researchers have combined the roles of a skin that senses approaching objects and a muscle that grasps them in a single soft material. When an electrically charged object comes near, ions inside the material move and produce an electrical signal. When ultraviolet (UV) light is applied, the material bends and grasps the object. Because it holds its deformed shape for more than 10 minutes after the light is turned off, the material shows potential for soft robotic hands that require fewer components and less wiring.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on September 30 that a research team led by Professor Hong Chul Moon from the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering has developed the ‘Ionograsper,’ an ionic soft robot that senses nearby objects and moves in response to light. An ionic material contains ions, small particles that carry a positive or negative electric charge, which allow the material to respond to electrical changes in its surroundings.
Humans notice objects with their eyes or skin and grasp them by moving their muscles. Robots likewise need sensors to detect their surroundings and actuators to generate movement. However, when these devices are attached separately to a soft robot, which bends flexibly, the number of components and the amount of wiring increase, and the structure becomes more complex.
The research team combined the roles of a robot’s skin and muscle in a single soft polymer material. Polymers are substances made of small molecules linked into long chains; plastics and rubber are common examples. The team combined azobenzene, a compound that changes shape when exposed to light, with a hygroscopic polymer that absorbs moisture from the air. This produced a network structure in which ions can move.
When a charged object approaches, its electric field causes the positive and negative ions inside the material to redistribute. As a result, changes occur inside the material even without direct contact. The researchers used the resulting electrical signal to detect the approach and movement of objects without applying a separate sensing voltage.
To make the material move, the researchers irradiate it with UV light. Azobenzene changes its molecular shape when it absorbs light, and moisture escapes from the irradiated side of the material. This causes the material to bend toward the light, which can be used to grasp an object.
When the light is turned off, moisture re-enters the material through nanoscale pores that formed on its surface during irradiation. The material then bends in the opposite direction and holds its deformed shape for more than 10 minutes, until the polymer structure slowly relaxes. This means the light does not need to stay on for the material to maintain its grasping position.
A defining feature of the study is that three functions, sensing an object, moving, and retaining a changed shape for a period of time, are realized in a single material. The researchers also analyzed how light-induced changes in the molecules and in moisture content lead to bidirectional bending and shape retention.
This material design approach could help reduce the components and wiring required when sensors and actuators are mounted separately on soft robots. The work, however, remains at the research stage: the material currently detects charged objects and is actuated by UV light. The team plans to increase the sensing distance, actuation speed, durability under repeated use, and load-bearing capacity, and to make the material responsive to visible or near-infrared light.
“Rather than attaching a robot’s skin and muscles separately, we created a single material that senses objects and moves when it receives light, and a key feature is that it maintains its deformed shape even after the light is turned off,” said Professor Hong Chul Moon. He added that the team plans to combine the material with AI control technologies and develop it into a sensing and actuation material for physical AI robots.
Professor Yong Min Kim of the School of Chemical Engineering at Jeonbuk National University served as the first author, and Professor Hong Chul Moon of KAIST’s Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering served as the corresponding author. The study was published online in the international journal Advanced Materials on September 14, 2026, and was selected as the front cover article of Issue 62.
Paper title: A Multifunctional Ionograsper Enabling Ion-Redistribution Proximity Sensing and Structural-Reconfiguration-Driven Bidirectional Actuation,
DOI: 10.1002/adma.74981
Authors: Yong Min Kim (Jeonbuk National University, first author); Jin Han Kwon, Hyeon Woo Yang, Sungryong Kim, and Gyeong Rok Lee (KAIST, co-authors); Hong Chul Moon (KAIST, corresponding author)
Related Video: https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.74981
This research was supported by a National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (Ministry of Science and ICT, MSIT) (RS-2025-00554260) and by the Nano & Material Technology Development Program through the NRF, funded by the MSIT (RS-2025-02221332).
2026.09.30 View 1393 -
KAIST Develops AI Chip That Recognizes Changes in Motion over Time
For a wearable device to distinguish walking from a brief swing of the arm, it must recognize how a movement changes over time. Korean researchers have developed a technology that stacks semiconductor devices with different response speeds, allowing them to recognize both a change that has just occurred and the changes before it. The technology could be applied to small devices that are worn on or attached to the body to analyze movement and physiological signals.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on September 29 that a research team led by Professor Jimin Kwon from the Department of AI Systems, together with researchers from UNIST (President Chong Rae Park) and POSTECH (President Seong Keun Kim), has made a solid thin film from a material that contains ions and used it to stack semiconductor devices with different response speeds in multiple layers.
In these devices, applying a voltage moves the ions within the material and changes the flow of current. When the voltage is removed, the ions require time to return to their original state. As a result, the effect of previous signals remains in the device for a short time. This slow movement has generally been considered a disadvantage, but the research team used it to identify earlier inputs.
The main challenge was controlling how long this effect lasts. Until now, such materials have mostly been liquids or soft gels, which made it difficult to fabricate the devices precisely or to stack them in multiple layers.
To address this challenge, the team made the material into a solid thin film, known as a solid-state ionogel, and adjusted the amount of ions in the film as well as its thickness. This allowed them to create devices that respond to signals either quickly or slowly. When the two types were stacked, one layer responded to the most recent signal, while the other responded to signals that had accumulated over a longer period.
The researchers confirmed that the devices could distinguish all 16 patterns created when four consecutive input signals are turned on or off in different combinations. Using the responses measured from the devices, they also built a simulation model of a system that classifies videos of moving handwritten digits. The model achieved validation accuracies above 90% for sequences of moving images played at different speeds.
The team fabricated the devices on both 4-inch wafers and flexible substrates. Their electrical characteristics remained stable for 55 months after fabrication.
The results could be used to develop technologies for processing information that changes over time, such as movement and signals from the body, directly on small devices. Further validation is needed to determine how the technology performs, and how much power it saves, in actual smartwatches.
"These devices can be fabricated on large-area substrates using existing thin-film semiconductor processes, and they can also be stacked in multiple layers," said Professor Kwon. He added that the technology could be developed into AI chips that analyze movement and physiological signals for devices that must operate with low power consumption, such as smartwatches.
Research Professor Haksoon Jung from KAIST is the first author of the study, and Professor Yong-Young Noh of POSTECH and Professor Jimin Kwon of KAIST are the co-corresponding authors. The findings were published in Advanced Materials on June 30.
Paper title: Monolithic 3D-Integrated All-Solid Ion-Gated Carbon Nanotube Transistors With Tunable Ionic Conductance for Multi-Timescale Reservoir Computing,
DOI: 10.1002/adma.202523703
This research was supported by the National R&D Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), funded by the Korean government (Ministry of Science and ICT, MSIT) (RS-2023-00281195 and RS-2024-00355384), and by the Korea Planning & Evaluation Institute of Industrial Technology (KEIT), funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MOTIE, Korea) (RS-2024-00417909).
2026.09.29 View 978 -
KAIST Develops a Genetic Switch That Works in Both Bacteria and Yeast
Microbial cell factories that produce pharmaceutical ingredients and other useful compounds include both the bacterium Escherichia coli and yeast, the organism used to leaven bread and ferment alcohol. The two organisms turn genes on by different rules, so a production design built for one has been hard to transfer to the other. A KAIST research team has now built a gene control element that works in both and tested it using a green pigment whose production requires several genes working together. The work is expected to help researchers select the microbe best suited to producing a target compound.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on September 28 that a research team led by Professor Juyoung Lee from the Graduate School of Engineering Biology has developed a "hybrid promoter," a gene control element that works in both E. coli and yeast, two very different types of microorganism.
For a microbe to make a target compound, the genes responsible for producing it must be turned on. A promoter is the stretch of DNA located in front of a gene that controls how strongly that gene works.
The challenge is that E. coli and yeast turn genes on in different ways, and a promoter that performs well in E. coli may not work at all in yeast. Making the same compound in a different microbe has therefore required choosing a promoter suited to that host and retuning the output of each gene from the beginning.
The team's hybrid promoter combines, within a single sequence, DNA elements that E. coli and yeast each recognize. It is, in effect, a shared control element designed so that each organism can find the signals it needs even though the two read genes differently. By varying the combination of these elements, the researchers built a series of promoters spanning a range of strength from weak to strong.
The promoters worked in both hosts, and combinations that were strong in E. coli were generally strong in yeast as well. That does not mean the two microbes make equal amounts of a compound; it means the relative ranking of promoter strengths from weak to strong is preserved across hosts.
The team then tested whether the new control element could do more than turn on a single gene and could also be used for actual compound production. For this, they chose a green pigment whose production requires three genes acting in sequence. Under the strong control element, pigment output was about 3.1 times higher in E. coli and about 2.6 times higher in yeast than under the weak one. The result shows that the system can control the amount of a compound produced in both microbes. The team also confirmed that the promoters worked in other types of bacteria and yeast.
The approach could help researchers identify which microbe is best suited to producing a given compound, since the same gene control design can be applied across several microbes and the production results can be compared. It may reduce the need to redesign control elements from scratch whenever the host changes, although improving actual output will still require host-specific tuning.
"What matters about this work is that it gives us a common design principle, one that lets us predict a promoter's relative strength even when the microbe changes," said Professor Juyoung Lee. She added that she expects the approach to speed up biomanufacturing by making it faster to design and compare a range of microbial cell factories.
So-Hee Son, Soo Young Moon, and Nan-Yeong An of KAIST are co-first authors on the paper, which was published in Nucleic Acids Research on September 23 and first appeared online on September 8.
Paper title: Modular synthetic cross-kingdom promoters enable coordinated expression in Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkag868
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT) and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) through the Bio & Medical Technology Development Program (RS-2024-00445145) and the Basic Science Research Program (RS-2025-00518119), with additional support from the Korea-US Collaborative Research Fund (KUCRF), funded by MSIT and the Ministry of Health & Welfare (RS-2024-00468410).
2026.09.28 View 1589 -
“It’s Okay to Disagree”: KAIST Suggests That a Secure Sense of Attachment Can Help Groups Make Better Decisions
When everyone in a meeting voices the same opinion, an organization can miss important warning signs and new ideas. A research team from KAIST suggests that when members feel securely accepted within their group, they can express dissenting opinions in greater detail and more persuasively, and other members may be more willing to use those opinions in decision-making.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on September 27 that a research team led by Professors Sujin Lee and Seungwon Jeong from the School of Business and Technology Management, working jointly with Professor Zoe Kinias from the Ivey Business School at Western University in Canada, presented research findings suggesting that “group attachment security” can promote the expression and acceptance of minority opinions within groups.
Group attachment security refers to a psychological state where a person perceives the group they belong to as a secure source of support. Members develop group attachment security when they receive emotional and relational support from the group and feel recognized as valued members. The more secure this attachment, the more members come to believe that voicing a different opinion will not lead to rejection or exclusion within the group.
People with dissenting opinions often hesitate to speak up due to potential backlash, even when holding crucial insights. This difficulty can be even greater within one’s own organization, where members face stronger expectations to align with the majority view.
The researchers reasoned that when feeling secure in a group calms relationship worries, members focus on the best outcome instead of other people's reactions. To test this, the team conducted two experiments using hypothetical decision-making scenarios, examining the perspectives of both minority opinion holders and the majority members who receive their opinions.
In the first experiment, participants were assigned to a group primed with attachment security or one that was not, and then asked to express their opinions in a scenario where they held a minority view.
The results showed that participants primed with group attachment security produced more elaborated and persuasive arguments than those in the neutral condition. The research team also confirmed that this difference occurred because the participants focused more on the problem and the content of their opinion itself.
In the second experiment, participants took the perspective of a majority member and evaluated selected arguments written by minority opinion holders in the first experiment. The research team found that participants rated arguments from the secure attachment condition as more persuasive than those from the neutral condition. Overall, participants reported less perceived expectancy violation and a greater willingness to use minority opinions from the secure condition.
In both experiments, the research team further distinguished minority members as either ingroup or outgroup members based on whether they shared a group identity with the majority opinion holders. This exploratory analysis was designed to examine whether group attachment security reduces relational concerns in expressing dissent. The researchers reasoned that minority members who shared a group identity with the majority might be less likely to dissent than outgroup minority members, because ingroup members are generally expected to share similar opinions.
Most interactions between group attachment security and ingroup/outgroup membership were not statistically significant, with expectancy violation in the second experiment being the only exception. Exploratory analyses, however, revealed a consistent pattern only among ingroup minorities; group attachment security shaped the quality of minority opinions through greater task focus in the first experiment, and the majority’s higher willingness to use minority opinions through both reduced expectancy violation and greater perceived persuasiveness in the second experiment.
This finding suggests that belonging to the same organization does not necessarily make it easier to voice dissenting opinions. In fact, ingroup members may feel greater pressure to conform to the group’s shared assumptions or majority opinion, making it harder for them to point out problems with current practices or offer negative feedback. In such cases, confidence that expressing a different opinion will not jeopardize one’s relationships or standing within the group can help ease this burden.
This research also has practical implications for organizations that rely on external consulting or audits because members do not speak up enough about problems or suggest improvements. If members who are closest to an organization’s problems remain silent out of concern for damaged relationships or negative evaluations, the organization cannot fully draw on their knowledge or act on the warning signs they identify. To encourage members to speak up, organizations need to provide opportunities for members to speak and build an environment in which those members a stable, secure attachment to the group.
The findings also suggest that simply gathering members from diverse backgrounds into one organization is not enough to realize the benefits of diversity. Diversity can contribute to decision-making and innovation only when members can safely express opinions that differ from the majority, and when other members treat those opinions as useful information rather than as conflict or a challenge to the organization.
These findings could inform efforts to develop organizational cultures and leadership practices that reduce groupthink and make better use of members’ knowledge and perspectives at companies, research institutions, and public organizations. Examples include leaders openly inviting counterarguments, recognizing the contributions of minority opinions, and consistently reassuring members that voicing a different opinion will not harm their relationships or result in unfavorable evaluations within the organization.
Professor Sujin Lee and Seungwon Jeong explained, “Simply giving members the opportunity to voice a different opinion is not enough. Members need to be confident that they won’t be excluded from the organization for holding a different opinion, so they can explain their thoughts in greater detail and more persuasively, and the majority can receive that opinion as useful information for reaching a better decision rather than as conflict.”
The study, with Tae Hyun Kim, a doctoral candidate in the School of Business and Technology Management, as first author, was published online in the international journal Scientific Reports on August 4.
Paper title: The role of group attachment security in minority opinion expression in decision making groups,
DOI: 10.1038/s41598-026-65147-7
Paper link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-65147-7
This research was supported by the Institute of Information & Communications Technology Planning & Evaluation (IITP) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (No. RS-2024-00397663 and No. IITP-2022(2026)-RS-2022-00156435), and by Samsung Electronics (No. IO251218-14849-01).
2026.09.28 View 941 -
KAIST’s World-First Full-Course Robot Marathon Completion Published in Nature
A quadruped robot ran 42.195 km, a distance that is not easy even for humans to complete, without replacing its battery. KAIST researchers have developed this world-first achievement into design principles for long-distance operation, published the results in Nature, and are now moving toward commercializing robots that can be used in real industrial environments.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on the September 24 that the long-distance running technology of RAIBO2, a quadruped robot developed by a research team led by Professor Jemin Hwangbo from the Department of Mechanical Engineering, and the results of its actual marathon completion were published in the international journal Nature.
This is the first time that robotics research conducted in Korea has been published in the main journal of Nature. Even globally, it is extremely rare for robotics research to be published in Nature, making this achievement an important demonstration of both the technological capability and academic level of Korean robotics research.
RAIBO2 completed the full 42.195 km course of the Sangju Dried Persimmon Marathon held in November 2024 in 4 hours, 19 minutes, and 52 seconds without charging or replacing its battery. It was the world’s first case of a quadruped robot completing the full course of an actual marathon event.
The core significance of this paper does not lie simply in the record of a robot running 42.195 km. In the global robotics industry, competition has recently intensified over the running speeds and obstacle-negotiation capabilities of quadruped robots and humanoids. However, to operate robots for long periods in real industrial environments, it is necessary to secure not only momentary locomotion performance but also energy efficiency, thermal management, battery performance, and actuator stability.
The research team approached long-distance operation not as a performance issue involving individual components such as batteries or motors, but as a “whole-robot system problem” in which mechanical structure, electrical systems, and locomotion control are closely interconnected.
Quadruped robots lose energy in multiple areas – including actuators, electrical systems, and mechanical components – as they repeatedly move their legs. Improving the efficiency of only one component makes it difficult to achieve both fast and stable locomotion performance and long travel distances at the same time.
The research team systematically analyzed energy losses throughout the entire robot and jointly designed the mechanical, electrical, actuation, and control systems so that energy consumption could be reduced while maintaining high locomotion performance. Through this approach, the researchers presented specific design principles for which factors must be considered together to enable quadruped robots to move stably for extended periods.
In particular, the research team went beyond short-distance laboratory running tests or maximum travel distances estimated through calculations and validated the technology on an actual full marathon course.
During the marathon, the team recorded the robot’s internal voltage, current, temperature, and battery status in real time and synchronized the data with position, speed, and altitude information measured by GPS. RAIBO2 was officially registered as a participant, allowing formal split times to be recorded, while the researchers ran alongside the robot and filmed the entire journey, lasting more than four hours from the starting line to the finish.
While the 42.195 km completion record demonstrated RAIBO2’s performance, the data accumulated throughout the process provided scientific evidence showing how that performance was made possible and how it was maintained in a real-world environment. The research team developed a single impressive demonstration into research results based on system design principles and actual measurement data that can be analyzed and revalidated.
The research team’s next challenge is to transfer the performance achieved with a single research robot into a product that can be used repeatedly in industrial environments.
RAIBO2 is a research robot that was designed and built by hand by the researchers themselves. To develop it into a product that can be deployed in real industrial environments, the same performance must be achieved reliably across multiple robots while also reducing production costs. The product must also meet industrial reliability requirements, including water and dust resistance, operation across a wide temperature range, durability against shock and vibration, and electromagnetic interference and compatibility requirements (EMI/EMC).
Raion Robotics, a KAIST faculty startup that originated from Professor Hwang’s laboratory, is responsible for connecting the research results to actual products. During the development of RAIBO2, Raion Robotics’ manufacturing technology also contributed to maintaining the high energy efficiency and locomotion performance achieved in the laboratory for more than four hours during the actual marathon.
The research team and Raion Robotics developed not only the mechanical and electrical systems, software, and artificial intelligence but also the motor drivers that precisely control the robot’s motors, allowing them to optimize the entire system.
Currently, Raion Robotics is using this systems-design capability to develop commercialization and mass-production technologies for quadruped robots that can operate for extended periods in real environments, going beyond research prototypes. The goal is to reproduce the world-class performance demonstrated by a single laboratory robot across multiple products and enable stable operation in a wide variety of environments.
Professor Jemin Hwang said, “This study goes beyond demonstrating how far a quadruped robot can run. Using actual marathon data, we demonstrated how the entire robot must be designed to achieve both high locomotion performance and energy efficiency,” adding, “We will connect the world-class performance achieved in the laboratory to products that anyone can use reliably in industrial environments.”
Dr. Choongin Lee and students Donghoon Youm and Jeongsoo Park of the KAIST Department of Mechanical Engineering participated in the study as co-first authors, and the research results were published in the international journal Nature on September 23 (local time).
Paper title: A quadruped robot designed to complete a marathon on a single battery charge, DOI: 10.1038/s41586-026-11102-5
Related photos and videos:
Comprehensive photo/video collection on Google Drive: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1ye82tTr2dCK2Bt7Ih0hSgWqkgqlVXk6X?usp=sharing
Full video of the marathon completion on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-HMFoa3g9nA
The entire process of RAIBO2 completing the marathon can be viewed in the YouTube video.
2026.09.28 View 2045 -
KAIST Finds a Way to Redirect Cell Fate with Just a Single Stimulus
Which genes need to be controlled to guide a stem cell toward a desired cell type, or to modulate an immune cell's inflammatory response? A Korean research team has developed a general-purpose computational framework that identifies the key targets needed to steer a cell toward a desired state with a single temporary intervention, without permanently altering its genes.
KAIST (President Choongsik Bae) announced on September 23 that a research team led by Professor Kwang-Hyun Cho from the Department of Bio and Brain Engineering has developed NUDGE, a foundational technology that redirects cell fate in a desired direction through a minimal, temporary intervention by harnessing the gene regulatory dynamics already present within cells.
Technologies that redirect cell fate have drawn attention as key tools for treating intractable diseases and advancing regenerative medicine, since they can be used to differentiate stem cells into cells with specific functions or to return diseased or aged cells to a near-normal state. Differentiation, for example, refers to the process by which a stem cell becomes a specific cell type with a distinct function, such as a cardiomyocyte or a neuron.
However, existing methods for controlling cell fate have relied mainly on permanent intervention like keeping specific genes locked in an "on" or "off" state. While this approach can produce the desired cell state, it has a limitation. It can reduce plasticity, the flexibility that allows cells to adapt to future changes in their environment, and it can also give rise to abnormal cell states that do not exist in nature.
Rather than forcing a cell into a fixed state, the research team devised a new strategy that lets the cell reach the desired state on its own through a single temporary stimulus. The approach nudges the gene regulatory dynamics already present inside the cell toward the target direction, much like briefly clearing a blocked channel and letting the water find its own course.
NUDGE (natural dynamics control of gene regulatory networks), the technology the team developed, uses a computational logic model to examine how key genes inside a cell influence one another and to determine which state the cell ultimately reaches as a result. It then mathematically decomposes the logical functions that describe these gene interactions to identify the minimal combination of control factors needed to convert a cell from its current state to the desired one.
For example, if the goal is to differentiate a stem cell into a cardiomyocyte, NUDGE functions as a "blueprint for minimal intervention" that identifies which molecular targets need to be temporarily activated or inhibited.
A key strength of the framework is that its exact method is mathematically guaranteed to identify all minimal control combinations that lead to the desired phenotype within the model. The team also presented an efficient approximation method that extends the framework to large-scale molecular networks.
NUDGE does more than identify which factors to stimulate. It can also analyze which pathways a stimulated cell follows to reach the target state and how stably that state is maintained once reached, making it possible to anticipate whether unexpected states might emerge during the transition.
The researchers assessed permanent control in 63 published biological network models where fixing a single node was sufficient to achieve the target phenotype; 55 showed reduced plasticity or attractors absent from the uncontrolled network. Separately, NUDGE's approximation achieved an average intervention error below 0.01 in more than 90 percent of 552 control problems across 69 large biological networks. Error measured the fraction of simulated converged states with the undesired phenotype. Of the minimum-sized, error-free interventions pooled from the three methods for each problem, NUDGE found an average of 83 percent, compared with 59 percent for IBMFA and 53 percent for LDOI.
To assess how well NUDGE explains real biological phenomena, the researchers applied it to three distinct processes: cardiomyocyte differentiation, fate determination in mast cells involved in allergic responses, and the conversion of macrophages, a type of immune cell, into an anti-inflammatory state.
In cardiomyocyte differentiation, the framework reproduced the known pattern in which MESP1, a gene important for heart development and regeneration, is briefly active early in differentiation but inactive in mature cardiomyocytes. The model shows how a single temporary intervention involving MESP1 and another regulatory target can guide differentiation without keeping MESP1 continuously active.
The team also identified GATA2 and GATA1 as key regulators of cell fate during mast cell formation. In the macrophage model, the team derived optimal strategies for a single temporary intervention, including one using IL-4, to induce anti-inflammatory M2 states while preserving the capacity to transition between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory phenotypes and among M2 subtypes.
The significance of this technology lies in providing a general-purpose framework that identifies where a single temporary intervention can guide a cell to a desired state, provided that a stable state with the desired phenotype exists in the network's uncontrolled dynamics. It is expected to find broad application, from guiding normal stem cells to differentiate into specific cell types such as cardiomyocytes, to normalizing diseased or aged cells, regenerating damaged tissue, modulating immune responses, and designing cancer reversion therapies that return cancer cells to a near-normal state.
Professor Cho said, "NUDGE is not a technology limited to returning a specific cell to a healthy state, but a general-purpose cell-control technology that guides a cell from its current state to a desired state through a single minimal stimulus." He added that the technology is expected to serve as a foundational tool for designing new control strategies across stem cell differentiation, aging, autoimmune disease, regenerative medicine, and cancer reversion therapy.
The study was conducted by Ferio Brahmana, who holds a master's degree, and Corbin Hopper, a PhD student, both in KAIST's Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, who contributed equally as co-first authors, with PhD student Woojeong Lee as a co-author. The findings were published online on September 14 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS).
Paper Title: Uncovering minimal control of cell fate by natural dynamics,
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2604777123
This work was supported by National Research Foundation of Korea grants funded by the Korea Government, the Ministry of Science and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) (RS-2023-NR077224, RS-2024-00405360, RS-2025-17652976, and 2021M3A9I4024447 [Bio & Medical Technology Development Program]). It was also supported by a grant of the Korea Dementia Research Project through the Korea Dementia Research Center, funded by the Ministry of Health & Welfare and the Ministry of Science and ICT, Republic of Korea (RS-2025-02264017) and by the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) Quantum+X Convergence R&D Project and KAIST Grand Challenge 30 Project.
2026.09.23 View 3353